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• Nilsen, Erlend Birkeland; Braastad, Bjarne Olai; Dale, Svein; Dervo, Børre Kind; Kausrud, Kyrre Linné & Kirkendall, Lawrence Richard [Show all 18 contributors for this article] (2023). Assessment of the risks posed by domestic cats (Felis catus) to biodiversity and animal welfare in Norway. Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Biodiversity of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2023(23), p. 1–228. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  VKM has evaluated to what extent keeping of cats pose a risk to biodiversity in Norway. Risks were assessed separately for threats to biodiversity from direct predation, indirect (non-lethal) effects, competition with other wildlife and spread of infectious organisms. VKM also assessed the risk of reduced animal welfare related to the keeping of domestic cats, both for the cats and their prey. In addition, VKM has assessed a range of risk-reducing measures aimed at minimizing the risk for negative impacts on biodiversity and animal welfare. Overall, VKM find that the risk of negative impact on vulnerable birds and red-listed mammalian species are high under certain conditions. VKM also find that there is a considerable risk associated with increased spread of infectious organisms from cats to wildlife and other domestic species. Some of these infectious organisms may also infect humans. With respect to mitigation measures, VKM concludes that measures focused on limiting cats’ access to prey populations are likely to yield the most positive outcomes in terms of mitigating the adverse impact on biodiversity.

• Hindar, Kjetil; Bodin, Johanna Eva; Duale, Nur; Jevnaker, Anne-Marthe Ganes; Garseth, Åse Helen & Malmstrøm, Martin [Show all 15 contributors for this article] (2023). Environmental risk assessment of genetically modified sterile VIRGIN® Atlantic salmon for use in research trials in aquaculture sea-cages. VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2023:20, p. 1–94. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  One of the substantial environmental challenges posed by the aquaculture industry is the escape of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), which can mate with wild Atlantic salmon and alter the genetic composition of the wild populations. One potential solution to mitigate this issue is the cultivation of sterile salmon in aquaculture. Atlantic salmon can be made sterile by pressure or temperature treatment of newly fertilized eggs to produce triploids, which are functionally sterile due to their unpaired chromosomes. However, these triploids often perform poorly on commercial fish farms and the production of triploid salmon in Norway is put on hold due to welfare issues of the fish.

• Kirkendall, Lawrence Richard; Bryn, Anders; Flø, Daniel; Malmstrøm, Martin; Velle, Gaute & Berg, Paul Ragnar [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2023). Assessment of the risk to Norwegian biodiversity from private import and keeping of Northern Cardinal. Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Biodiversity of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2023(18), p. 1–87. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  VKM has evaluated the risk to biodiversity from allowing private import and keeping of the Northern Cardinal as a caged bird in Norway, for birds acquired through the bird trade. VKM has reviewed the invasion ecology of non-native birds in general and of the Northern Cardinal specifically. The assessment includes evaluation of various mechanisms that invasive birds generally have a negative impact through, and includes competition, hybridization, spread of pathogens and interactions with other alien species in Norway. VKM has also evaluated two different scenarios establishment and how climate change can influence both the negative impact and the likelihood of establishment. Overall, VKM finds that there is low risk in regards negative effects on biodiversity in Norway in regard to import and keeping of the Northern Cardinal.

• Järnegren, Johanna; Gulliksen, Bjørn; Husa, Vivian; Malmstrøm, Martin; Oug, Eivind & Berg, Paul Ragnar [Show all 16 contributors for this article] (2023). Assessment of risk and risk-reducing measures related to the introduction and dispersal of the invasive alien carpet tunicate Didemnum vexillum in Norway. . VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2023(7), p. 1–124. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Didemnum vexillum is colonial sea squirt, a marine species which originates from the northwest Pacific; it was first recorded in Norway in November 2020. Didemnum vexillum is an alien species, meaning that it is a species that has been transferred from its original region to other regions of the world through human activity, and it had not previously been recorded in Norwegian waters. The species is regarded as having great invasive potential and having strong negative ecological effects on biodiversity. It is also considered to pose a risk to marine industries such as shipping and aquaculture, with possible major negative economic impacts.

• Piot, Niels; Schweiger, Oliver; Meeus, Ivan; Yañez, Orlando; Straub, Lars & Villamar-Bouza, Laura [Show all 26 contributors for this article] (2022). Honey bees and climate explain viral prevalence in wild bee communities on a continental scale. Scientific Reports. ISSN 2045-2322. 12. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-05603-2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Viruses are omnipresent, yet the knowledge on drivers of viral prevalence in wild host populations is often limited. Biotic factors, such as sympatric managed host species, as well as abiotic factors, such as climatic variables, are likely to impact viral prevalence. Managed and wild bees, which harbor several multi-host viruses with a mostly fecal–oral between-species transmission route, provide an excellent system with which to test for the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on viral prevalence in wild host populations. Here we show on a continental scale that the prevalence of three broad host viruses: the AKI-complex (Acute bee paralysis virus, Kashmir bee virus and Israeli acute paralysis virus), Deformed wing virus, and Slow bee paralysis virus in wild bee populations (bumble bees and solitary bees) is positively related to viral prevalence of sympatric honey bees as well as being impacted by climatic variables. The former highlights the need for good beekeeping practices, including Varroa destructor management to reduce honey bee viral infection and hive placement. Furthermore, we found that viral prevalence in wild bees is at its lowest at the extreme ends of both temperature and precipitation ranges. Under predicted climate change, the frequency of extremes in precipitation and temperature will continue to increase and may hence impact viral prevalence in wild bee communities.

• Eldegard, Katrine; Flø, Daniel; Kirkendall, Lawrence Richard; Malmstrøm, Martin; Nielsen, Anders & Rasmussen, Claus [Show all 13 contributors for this article] (2022). Assessment of the risks to honey bees and biodiversity in Norway posed by the predatory wasp species Vespa velutina and V. mandarinia - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Alien Organisms and Trade in Endangered species of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Enviroment . VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. Full text in Research Archive
• Thorstad, Eva Bonsak; Garseth, Åse Helen; Gjøen, Tor; Gulla, Snorre; Lo, Håvard & Malmstrøm, Martin [Show all 22 contributors for this article] (2021). Assessment of the risk of negative impact on biodiversity from import and release of eggs or live fish from landlocked Atlantic salmon from Klarälven in Sweden to Trysilelva in Norway. Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Alien Organisms and Trade in Endangered Species of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2021(04). Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction Atlantic salmon in the River Klarälven in Sweden live the entire life in freshwater, undertaking feeding migrations to Lake Vänern. The upper part of the watershed is in Norway and comprises the River Trysilelva and associated rivers and lakes. Atlantic salmon previously lived in the Norwegian part of the watershed but were lost due to the construction of 11 hydropower stations that block the upstream migration from Vänern. The power stations also cause a high mortality among downstream migrating fish. Tagging studies showed that there is 71-84% mortality of juveniles (smolts) and 100% mortality of adults during downstream migration past the eight lowermost power stations. Extensive mitigation measures are needed to reduce the mortality of downstream migrants and reestablish a population that can reach areas in Norway naturally without being captured in Sweden and transported to Norway. In 2015, the total costs of establishing fishways bypassing the power stations and securing safe downstream migration was estimated to be 1000 million SEK. To compensate for a decline of salmon due to lost habitat, hatchery-produced juveniles have been released in the watershed for more than 100 years, and adult salmon have been captured in the lower reaches of Klarälven and released in upstream reaches. After the Höljes power station was built, 80% of the salmon transported upstream were released upstream of Höljes. In 1993, the Norwegian government stopped these releases due to the large mortality of downstream migrating fish at the power stations. The releases had already been stopped from late summer 1988 due to bacterial kidney disease (BKD) outbreaks in salmon populations in the watershed. Since 1988, transported fish have been released upstream of Edsforsen in Sweden, and have not been able to reach Norway. Aim of report The Norwegian Environment Agency asked VKM to carry out a risk assessment of three specified methods that can be used to reestablish salmon in the Norwegian part of the watershed. This risk assessment is pertinent because the occurrence of alien organisms and infectious agents have developed differently in the Swedish and Norwegian parts of the watershed after salmon became unable to migrate through the river system. In 2013, the fish parasite Gyrodactylus salaris was detected in Klarälven, but has not been recorded in Norwegian parts of the watershed. Here, we assess the risk of negative impacts on native biodiversity by importing Atlantic salmon eggs or live adults from Klarälven to Norway. Three methods of importing eggs or adults were assessed: I. Import of fertilised eggs to a local hatchery in Norway, which are planted in the river in the spring or hatched and released as juveniles or smolts. II. Import of fertilised eggs that will be used to establish a long-term broodstock in Norway using the gene bank model, from which eggs can be planted into the river, or transferred to a local hatchery with subsequent release of juveniles or smolts. III. Import of adult salmon spawners that are captured in the lower parts of Klarälven in Sweden, transported in tanks and released in the Norwegian parts of the watershed. Methods The risk assessment was based on a literature review and qualitative assessment of each of the three methods of importing eggs or adults. The risk of impacts on native biodiversity and ecosystems was assessed for infectious agents, including parasites, bacterial pathogens, and viruses, and for other alien species. For each of the infectious agents and alien species, the risk is based on the product of the magnitude of the potential negative impact to native biodiversity and ecosystems, and the likelihood that negative consequences occur. The risk assessment concludes in terms of low, moderate, or high risk. .......................

• Vilizzi, Lorenzo; Copp, Gordon H.; Hill, Jeffrey E.; Adamovich, Boris; Aislabie, Luke & Akin, Daniel [Show all 61 contributors for this article] (2021). A global-scale screening of non-native aquatic organisms to identify potentially invasive species under current and future climate conditions. Science of the Total Environment. ISSN 0048-9697. 788, p. 1–16. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147868. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The threat posed by invasive non-native species worldwide requires a global approach to identify which introduced species are likely to pose an elevated risk of impact to native species and ecosystems. To inform policy, stakeholders and management decisions on global threats to aquatic ecosystems, 195 assessors representing 120 risk assessment areas across all six inhabited continents screened 819 non-native species from 15 groups of aquatic organisms (freshwater, brackish, marine plants and animals) using the Aquatic Species Invasiveness Screening Kit. This multi-lingual decision-support tool for the risk screening of aquatic organisms provides assessors with risk scores for a species under current and future climate change conditions that, following a statistically based calibration, permits the accurate classification of species into high-, medium-and low-risk categories under current and predicted climate conditions. The 1730 screenings undertaken encompassed wide geographical areas (regions, political entities, parts thereof, water bodies, river basins, lake drainage basins, and marine regions), which permitted thresholds to be identified for almost all aquatic organismal groups screened as well as for tropical, temperate and continental climate classes, and for tropical and temperate marine ecoregions. In total, 33 species were identified as posing a 'very high risk' of being or becoming invasive, and the scores of several of these species under current climate increased under future climate conditions, primarily due to their wide thermal tolerances. The risk thresholds determined for taxonomic groups and climate zones provide a basis against which area-specific or climate-based calibrated thresholds may be interpreted. In turn, the risk rankings help decision-makers identify which species require an immediate 'rapid' management action (e.g. eradication, control) to avoid or mitigate adverse impacts, which require a full risk assessment, and which are to be restricted or banned with regard to importation and/or sale as ornamental or aquarium/fishery enhancement. Decision support tools AS-ISK Hazard identification Non-native species Risk analysis Climate change

• Nilsen, Erlend Birkeland; Austrheim, Gunnar; Gjøen, Tor; Kvie, Kjersti Sternang; Malmstrøm, Martin & Ytrehus, Bjørnar [Show all 15 contributors for this article] (2021). Assessment of the risk to Norwegian biodiversity from import and keeping of American bison, European bison, domesticated water buffalo and domesticated yak. Scientific Opinion of the panel on Alien Organisms and Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2021(20), p. 1–77. Full text in Research Archive
• Bodin, Johanna Eva; Thorstensen, Tage; Alsheikh, Muath K; Basic, Dean; Edvardsen, Rolf Brudvik & Dalen, Knut Tomas [Show all 41 contributors for this article] (2021). Genome editing in food and feed production – implications for risk assessment. Scientific Opinion of the Scientific Steering Committee of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2021(18). Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment (VKM) initiated this work to examine the extent to which organisms developed by genome-editing technologies pose new challenges in terms of risk assessment. This report considers whether the risk assessment guidance on genetically modified organisms, developed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), can be applied to evaluate potential risks of organisms developed by genome editing. Background Gene technology has allowed for the transfer of genes between organisms and species, and thereby to design altered genotypes with novel traits, i.e. GMOs. A new paradigm started in the early 2000s with the development of genome-editing techniques. Unlike traditional genetic modification techniques resulting in insertion of foreign DNA fragments at random locations in the genome, the new genome-editing techniques additionally open for a few single nucleotide edits or short insertions/deletions at a targeted site in an organism’s genome. These new techniques can be applied to most types of organisms, including plants, animals and microorganisms of commercial interest. An important question is how the novel, genome-edited organisms should be evaluated with respect to risks to health and the environment. The European Court of Justice decided in 2018 to include genome-edited organisms in the GMO definition and hence in the regulatory system already in place. This implies that all products developed by genome-editing techniques must be risk-assessed within the existing regulatory framework for GMOs. The European and Norwegian regulatory frameworks regulate the production, import and placing on the market of food and feed containing, consisting of or produced from GMOs, as well as the release of GMOs into the environment. The assessment draws on guidance documents originally developed by EFSA for risk assessment of GMOs, which were drawn up mainly to address risks regarding insertion of transgenes. The new genome-editing techniques, however, provide a new continuum of organisms ranging from those only containing a minor genetic alteration to organisms containing insertion or deletion of larger genomic regions. Risk assessment of organisms developed by genome editing The present discourse on how new genome-editing techniques should be regulated lacks an analysis of whether risk assessment methodologies for GMOs are adequate for risk assessment of organisms developed through the use of the new genome-editing techniques. Therefore, this report describes the use of genome-editing techniques in food and feed production and discusses challenges in risk assessment with the regulatory framework. Specifically, this report poses the question as to whether the EFSA guidance documents are sufficient for evaluating risks to health and environment posed by genome-edited plants, animals and microorganisms. To address these questions, the report makes use of case examples relevant for Norway. These examples, intended for food and feed, include oilseed rape with a modified fatty acid profile, herbicide-tolerant and pest-resistant crops, sterile salmon, virus-resistant pigs and hornless cattle. The report considers all aspects of the stepwise approach as described in the EFSA guidance documents. Conclusions The inherent flexibility of the EFSA guidance makes it suitable to cover health and environmental risk assessments of a wide range of organisms with various traits and intended uses. Combined with the embedded case-by-case approach the guidance is applicable to genome-edited organisms. The evaluation of the guidance demonstrates that the parts of the health and environmental risk assessment concerned with novel traits (i.e. the phenotype of the organism) may be fully applied to all categories of genome-edited organisms. ............

• Nielsen, Anders; Måren, Inger Elisabeth; Rosef, Line; Kirkendall, Lawrence Richard; Malmstrøm, Martin & de Boer, Hugo [Show all 15 contributors for this article] (2021). Assessment of possible adverse consequences for biodiversity when planting vascular plants outside their natural range in Norway - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Alien Organisms and Trade in Endangered species (CITES) of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment (VKM). VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2021(15), p. 1–97. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We sow or plant vascular plant species on a large scale in revegetation and restoration projects in Norway today. Some of the species used are already found in Norway, but many of the species, subspecies or populations used though native are not local, that is, they are regionally alien. A regionally alien species is a species that is native to Norway (has been in Norway since 1800) somewhere in the country, but which has been spread by humans to places in Norway where they do not occur. In theory, and according to the Biodiversity Act, it is desirable to use local seeds or plants to preserve local biodiversity. The aim of this report is to define guidelines that helps prevent the planting of vascular plant species with a high potential for negative effects on local biodiversity. It is assumed that the native or local populations are better adapted to local environmental conditions than populations from other areas or regions, and the risk of harmful genetic changes is therefore considered small when using local plant and seed sources. Arriving at a common definition for the area within which plants are “local” is difficult, though; vascular plant species are numerous (3317 species in mainland Norway, of which more than half are alien species introduced after 1800, Artdatabanken 2015), have different growth forms, different environmental requirements, and different reproductive and dispersal ecology. Even closely related vascular plant species can differ in such characteristics and hence in the extent of the "place" or “area”. The dispersal ecology of a plant species is of great importance for whether the species has genetically distinct populations within its range or not. Different strategies (wind pollination vs. insect pollination, vegetative propagation vs. seed dispersal, large seeds vs. small seeds) have an impact on the degree of gene flow between populations and thus also how locally adapted the species is in different areas. Whether the species has primarily vegetative reproduction or whether it spreads mainly by means of seeds, and whether the seed dispersal takes place ballistically, with wind or water, or by zookori (attached to animals or eaten by animals) determines how far the species can spread and how large gene flow there is between different populations. Whether the species is pollinated by wind or by the help of insects also affects the degree of gene flow differently. In Norway, there is great variation in many biophysical and ecological conditions (climate, topography, hydrology, and geology) over relatively short distances. This means that species that grow only a few meters apart can grow under different environmental conditions. This large variation in environmental conditions - on different spatial scales - can give rise to local genetic adaptation. However, plants have been moved around the landscape for several hundred years by our livestock (as seeds in fur and hooves, and in faeces) from lowland pasture to mountain pasture and along traffic arteries across the country due to the extensive transport of animals and people. Over time, this has led to expanded geographical distribution for several species and increased gene flow between populations over relatively large distances. .............

• Velle, Gaute; Edsman, Lennart; Evangelista, Charlotte; Johnsen, Stein Ivar; Malmstrøm, Martin & Vrålstad, Trude [Show all 17 contributors for this article] (2021). Assessment of the risk to Norwegian biodiversity from import and keeping of crustaceans in freshwater aquaria. Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Alien Organisms and trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2021(02), p. 1–377. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Key words: Risk assessment, Crayfish, Shrimps, Crabs, Climate change, Aphanomyces astaci, White spot syndrome, Alien species, Biological invasion Introduction The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment (VKM) was requested by the Norwegian Environment Agency to assess the risk of negative impacts to biodiversity in Norway resulting from import of crustacean decapods for keeping in freshwater aquariums. VKM was asked to 1) list species of crayfish, crabs and shrimps that are currently kept in freshwater aquaria in Norway, and species that are likely to be kept in freshwater aquaria in Norway within the next 10 years, 2) assess the ability of the species to survive under Norwegian conditions and cause impacts on ecosystems and other species, and 3) state the potential negative effects on the biological diversity of diseases caused by pathogens, regulated under the Norwegian Food Act. Methods The risk assessment, without focus on pathogens, was performed in two steps. First, we used a pre-screening toolkit to identify species of crayfish, crabs and shrimps with potential to become invasive in freshwater habitats in Norway. Each species was given an invasiveness score based on 55 questions on biogeography, ecology, and climate change. In a second step, a full risk assessment, including the potential impacts of pathogens, was conducted on those species receiving the highest invasiveness score. This assessment included questions on the organism’s probability of entry and pathways of entry, establishment and spread, potential impacts on biodiversity, and how climate change scenarios might affect the assessment. Likelyhood and confidence was assessed for each question. In conclusion, each species was designated as either low-, moderate-, or high risk. Many crustacean decapod species are confirmed or suspected carriers of pathogens that can cause mass mortality among native crustaceans. The risk posed by crustaceans as carriers of pathogens may be independent of the environmental risk that they pose through ecological interactions. Therefore, the four crustacean disease pathogens that are regulated under the Norwegian Food Act, were assessed separately. These include Aphanomyces astaci causing crayfish plague, white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) causing white spot disease, Taura syndrome virus (TSV) causing Taura syndrome, and yellow head virus genotype 1 (YHV1) causing yellow head disease. The assessments comprised questions on the pathogen’s probability of entry (as a hitchhiker organism with imported crustaceans), pathways of entry, establishment and spread, and potential impact on crustacean biodiversity. Likelihood and confidence were assessed for each question. In conclusion, each pathogen was designated as either low-, moderate-, or high risk. In a third step, we categorized the likelihood that a crustacean species introduces a pathogen associated with a high- or moderate risk into: I) known chronic carriers, II) suspected chronic carriers, III) suspected situational carrier, IV) possible pathogen transmitters, and V) no direct or circumstantial evidence for carrier status or pathogen transmission in the genus. Results Based on information from the Norwegian Pet Trade Association, the project group listed 112 taxa (mainly species and some genera) of freshwater crayfish, crabs and shrimps that are relevant for trade in Norway. These included 38 crayfish taxa, 28 crab taxa, and 45 shrimp taxa. In addition, one marine crab was included. Sixteen species of crayfish, four species of shrimps, and two species of crabs underwent a full ecological risk assessment. The probabilities of entry both into the aquarium trade in Norway, and potentially further into Norwegian nature, were based on the prevalence of the species in the aquarium trade in Norway. We assumed that all species were equally likely to escape captivity or to be .........

• Hindar, Kjetil; Hole, Lars Robert; Kausrud, Kyrre Linné; Malmstrøm, Martin; Rimstad, Espen & Robertson, Lucy [Show all 18 contributors for this article] (2020). Assessment of the risk to Norwegian biodiversity and aquaculture from pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha). Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Alien Organisms and Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. VKM Report. ISSN 2535-4019. 2020(01), p. 1–157. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Key words: VKM, risk assessment, Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment, Norwegian Environment Agency, Norwegian Food Safety Authority Introduction: The Norwegian Environment Agency and the Norwegian Food Safety Authority asked the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment to assess the risk to Norwegian biodiversity, to the productivity of native salmonid populations, and to aquaculture, from the spread and establishment of pink salmon in Norwegian rivers, and to assess mitigation measures to prevent the spread and establishment of this alien species. Pink salmon is native to rivers around the northern Pacific Ocean. The species usually has a strict two-year life cycle, with populations spawning in even and odd years being genetically isolated. Fertilized eggs of pink salmon were transferred from Sakhalin Island to Northwest Russia in the late 1950s, and fry were released in rivers draining to the White Sea. The first abundant return to rivers in Northwest Russia, as well as to Norway and other countries in northwestern Europe, was recorded in 1960. Stocking with fish from Sakhalin was terminated in 1979. By then, no self-sustaining populations had been established. From 1985 onwards, stocking in White Sea rivers was resumed with fish from rivers in the more northerly Magadan oblast on the Russian Pacific, resulting in the establishment of reproducing populations. Stocking was continued until 1999, when the last batch of evenyear fertilized eggs was imported, and the fry released in spring 2000. Thus, all pink salmon caught after 2001 in the Northeast Atlantic and the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean including the Barents Sea, as well as in rivers draining into these seas, are the result of reproduction in the wild. Pink salmon is now established with abundant and increasing stocks in Northwest Russia and regular occurrence in rivers in eastern Finnmark. Catches of odd-year adult pink salmon in Northwest Russia were usually below 100 tonnes before 2001 and increased to an annual average of 220.5 tonnes during the period 2001-2017. Even-year returns are smaller than odd-year returns both in Northwest Russia and in Norway. The number of pink salmon recorded in Norwegian rivers peaked in 2017, with a high number of fish in eastern Finnmark, and substantial numbers recorded in rivers all along the coast of Norway and in other European countries. In 2019, the area with abundant returns expanded in comparison with 2017, to include rivers in western Finnmark and Troms. The recorded numbers were perhaps lower in southern Norway in 2017 than in 2019 (full statistics not available when this report was finalised), but also in southern Norway there were more pink salmon in 2019 than in any year before 2017. The large numbers of pink salmon in western Finnmark and Troms in 2019 may indicate an expansion of the area in Norway with abundant odd-year pink salmon returns. In some small rivers in eastern Finnmark, between 1000 and 1500 pink salmon were fished out by local people in 2019, demonstrating the magnitude of the potential impact in terms of numbers of pink salmon. We cannot rule out that this will not happen over larger parts of Norway in the coming years. The even-year strain of pink salmon only occurs in low numbers in Russian rivers, as well as Norwegian, rivers. Adult pink salmon enter the rivers from early July, and spawning occurs in AugustSeptember. Spawning habitat requirements are like those of native salmonids: Atlantic salmon, brown trout, and Arctic charr. Spawning of pink salmon occurs earlier than the native salmonids, but observations in 2019 indicate a possible overlap with native salmonids in September in northern Norway. . Pink salmon eggs hatch in late winter or spring, and the alevins remain in the gravel until most of the yolk sac has been resorbed. Emerging fry are approximately 30 mm in length. ...................

• Musilova, Zuzana; Cortesi, Fabio; Matschiner, Michael; Davies, Wayne I. L.; Patel, Jagdish Suresh & Stieb, Sara M. [Show all 18 contributors for this article] (2019). Vision using multiple distinct rod opsins in deep-sea fishes. Science. ISSN 0036-8075. 364(6440), p. 588–592. doi: 10.1126/science.aav4632.
• Malmstrøm, Martin; Britz, Ralf; Matschiner, Michael; Tørresen, Ole K.; Hadiaty, Renny Kurnia & Yaakob, Norsham [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2018). The Most Developmentally Truncated Fishes Show Extensive Hox Gene Loss and Miniaturized Genomes. Genome Biology and Evolution (GBE). ISSN 1759-6653. 10(4), p. 1088–1103. doi: 10.1093/gbe/evy058. Full text in Research Archive
• Baalsrud, Helle Tessand; Voje, Kjetil L.; Tørresen, Ole Kristian; Solbakken, Monica Hongrø; Matschiner, Michael & Malmstrøm, Martin [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2017). Evolution of Hemoglobin Genes in Codfishes Influenced by Ocean Depth. Scientific Reports. ISSN 2045-2322. 7, p. 1–10. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-08286-2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Understanding the genetic basis of adaptation is one of the main enigmas of evolutionary biology. Among vertebrates, hemoglobin has been well documented as a key trait for adaptation to different environments. Here, we investigate the role of hemoglobins in adaptation to ocean depth in the diverse teleost order Gadiformes, with species distributed at a wide range of depths varying in temperature, hydrostatic pressure and oxygen levels. Using genomic data we characterized the full hemoglobin (Hb) gene repertoire for subset of species within this lineage. We discovered a correlation between expanded numbers of Hb genes and ocean depth, with the highest numbers in species occupying shallower, epipelagic regions. Moreover, we demonstrate that the Hb genes have functionally diverged through diversifying selection. Our results suggest that the more variable environment in shallower water has led to selection for a larger Hb gene repertoire and that Hbs have a key role in adaptive processes in marine environments.

• Malmstrøm, Martin; Matschiner, Michael; Tørresen, Ole Kristian; Jakobsen, Kjetill Sigurd & Jentoft, Sissel (2017). Whole genome sequencing data and de novo draft assemblies for 66 teleost species. Scientific Data. ISSN 2052-4463. 4, p. 1–13. doi: 10.1038/sdata.2016.132. Full text in Research Archive
• Malmstrøm, Martin; Matschiner, Michael; Tørresen, Ole Kristian; Star, Bastiaan; Snipen, Lars-Gustav & Hansen, Thomas F [Show all 13 contributors for this article] (2016). Evolution of the immune system influences speciation rates in teleost fishes. Nature Genetics. ISSN 1061-4036. 48(10), p. 1204–1210. doi: 10.1038/ng.3645. Full text in Research Archive
• Gante, Hugo F; Matschiner, Michael; Malmstrøm, Martin; Jakobsen, Kjetill Sigurd; Jentoft, Sissel & Salzburger, Walter (2016). Genomics of speciation and introgression in Princess cichlid fishes from Lake Tanganyika. Molecular Ecology. ISSN 0962-1083. 25(24), p. 6143–6161. doi: 10.1111/mec.13767. Show summary

  How variation in the genome translates into biological diversity and new species originate has endured as the mystery of mysteries in evolutionary biology. African cichlid fishes are prime model systems to address speciation-related questions for their remarkable taxonomic and phenotypic diversity, and the possible role of gene flow in this process. Here, we capitalize on genome sequencing and phylogenomic analyses to address the relative impacts of incomplete lineage sorting, introgression and hybrid speciation in the Neolamprologus savoryi-complex (the ‘Princess cichlids’) from Lake Tanganyika. We present a time-calibrated species tree based on whole-genome sequences and provide strong evidence for incomplete lineage sorting in the early phases of diversification and multiple introgression events affecting different stages. Importantly, we find that the Neolamprologus chromosomes show centre-to-periphery biases in nucleotide diversity, sequence divergence, GC content, incomplete lineage sorting and rates of introgression, which are likely modulated by recombination density and linked selection. The detection of heterogeneous genomic landscapes has strong implications on the genomic mechanisms involved in speciation. Collinear chromosomal regions can be protected from gene flow and harbour incompatibility genes if they reside in lowly recombining regions, and coupling can evolve between nonphysically linked genomic regions (chromosome centres in particular). Simultaneously, higher recombination towards chromosome peripheries makes these more dynamic, evolvable regions where adaptation polymorphisms have a fertile ground. Hence, differences in genome architecture could explain the levels of taxonomic and phenotypic diversity seen in taxa with collinear genomes and might have contributed to the spectacular cichlid diversity observed today.

• Cortesi, Fabio; Musilováa, Zuzana; Stieb, Sara M.; Hart, Nathan S.; Siebeck, Ulrike E. & Malmstrøm, Martin [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2015). Ancestral duplications and highly dynamic opsin gene evolution in percomorph fishes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. ISSN 0027-8424. 112(5), p. 1493–1498. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1417803112.
• Malmstrøm, Martin; Jentoft, Sissel; Gregers, Tone Fredsvik & Jakobsen, Kjetill Sigurd (2013). Unraveling the Evolution of the Atlantic Cod’s (Gadus morhua L.) Alternative Immune Strategy. PLOS ONE. ISSN 1932-6203. 8(9). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074004. Full text in Research Archive
• Star, Bastiaan; Nederbragt, Alexander Johan; Jentoft, Sissel; Grimholt, Unni; Malmstrøm, Martin & Gregers, Tone Fredsvik [Show all 42 contributors for this article] (2011). The genome sequence of Atlantic cod reveals a unique immune system. Nature. ISSN 0028-0836. 477(7363), p. 207–210. doi: 10.1038/nature10342. Full text in Research Archive

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• Kausrud, Kyrre; Malmstrøm, Martin; Stenseth, Nils Christian & Hjelle, Dag (2021). Koronaviruset – pandemi eller kommet for å bli? Aftenposten Viten. ISSN 2464-3033.
• Vrålstad, Trude; Nielsen, Anders; Dolmen, Dag; Jacob, Höglund; Kausrud, Kyrre & Malmstrøm, Martin [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2019). Risk assessment for amphibian diseases .
• Vrålstad, Trude; Nielsen, Anders; Dolmen, Dag; Jacob, Höglund; Kausrud, Kyrre & Malmstrøm, Martin [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2019). The risk of Bd and Bsal to Norwegian amphibian biodiversity.
• Baalsrud, Helle Tessand; Tørresen, Ole Kristian; Malmstrøm, Martin; Salzburger, Walter; Jakobsen, Kjetill Sigurd & Jentoft, Sissel (2015). The hemoglobin repertoire in the order of Gadiformes linked to depth adaptation.
• Malmstrøm, Martin; Sydenham, Markus A. K. & Nielsen, Anders (2015). CEES, its people and machines - a goldmine for genetic studies.
• Malmstrøm, Martin (2013). Life without MHC II - a teleost genome project.
• Malmstrøm, Martin (2013). The 90+ teleost genome project.
• Solbakken, Monica Hongrø; Malmstrøm, Martin; Tørresen, Ole Kristian; Jakobsen, Kjetill Sigurd & Jentoft, Sissel (2013). Atlantic cod displays an unusual TLR repertoire – a Gadidae-specific feature?
• Malmstrøm, Martin (2012). The 60+ teleost genome project.
• Star, Bastiaan; Nederbragt, Alexander Johan; Jentoft, Sissel; Grimholt, Unni; Malmstrøm, Martin & Gregers, Tone Fredsvik [Show all 18 contributors for this article] (2011). The genome of Atlantic cod reveals a unique immune system.
• Nederbragt, Alexander Johan; Lagesen, Karin & Malmstrøm, Martin (2011). Bioinformatic analysis of genomic data.
• Grimholt, Unni; Nederbragt, Alexander Johan; Rounge, Trine Ballestad; Malmstrøm, Martin; Star, Bastiaan & Tooming-Klunderud, Ave [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2009). The cod genome project.
• Grimholt, Unni; Malmstrøm, Martin; Nederbragt, Alexander Johan; Rounge, Trine Ballestad; Jentoft, Sissel & Tooming-Klunderud, Ave [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2009). The lack of cod MHC class II.
• Malmstrøm, Martin; Strømnes, Einar ; Hansen, Rune Roland & Ugland, Karl Inne (2007). The nematode Cucullanus heterochrous; a possible indicator species for marine xenobiotics.
• Eldegard, Katrine; Flø, Daniel; Kirkendall, Lawrence R.; Malmstrøm, Martin; Nielsen, Anders & Rasmussen, Claus [Show all 13 contributors for this article] (2022). Assessment of the risks to honey bees and biodiversity in Norway posed by the predatory wasp species Vespa velutina and V. mandarina. VKM. ISSN 978-82-8259-386-1. 2022(03).
• Rueness, Eli Knispel; Berg, Paul Ragnar; Gulla, Snorre; Halvorsen, Kim Aleksander Tallaksen; Järnegren, Johanna & Malmstrøm, Martin [Show all 19 contributors for this article] (2019). Assessment of the risk to Norwegian biodiversity from import of wrasses and other cleaner fish for use in aquaculture. Opinion of the Panel on Alien Organisms and Trade in Endangered Species of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment (VKM). ISSN 978-82-8259-330-4. Full text in Research Archive
• Nielsen, Anders; Dolmen, Dag; Höglund, Jacob; Kausrud, Kyrre; Malmstrøm, Martin & Taugbøl, Annette [Show all 14 contributors for this article] (2019). Assessment of the risk to Norwegian biodiversity from the pathogenic fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal). Opinion of the Panel on Alien Organisms and Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment (VKM). ISSN 978-82-8259-320-5. Full text in Research Archive
• Skjerve, Eystein; Thurfjell, Henrik; Flø, Daniel; Grahek-Ogden, Danica; Malmstrøm, Martin & Nesbakken, Truls [Show all 17 contributors for this article] (2018). Wild boar population growth and expansion – implications for biodiversity, food safety, and animal health in Norway. Opinion of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment (VKM). ISSN 978-82-8259-311-3.
• Nielsen, Anders; Hatteland, Bjørn Arild; Malmstrøm, Martin; Proschwitz, Ted von; Velle, Gaute & de Boer, Hugo [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2017). Assessment of the risk to Norwegian biodiversity from the import and keeping of terrestrial gastropods in terraria. Opinion of the Panel on Alien Organisms and Trade in Endangered Species of the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment. Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food and Environment (VKM). ISSN 978-82-8259-290-1.

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